1 Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of spoken language in written form. The source can either be utterances (speech or sign language) or preexisting text in another writing system

1 Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of spoken language in written form. The source can either be utterances (speech or sign language) or preexisting text in another writing system.

2 There are some phonological theories, but the two classic theories are generative phonology and natural phonology. Generative phonology includes the tenet that underlying phonological representations are translated into allophones according to the rules of grammar of the phonological system to create a surface phonetic representation. Natural phonology explains why children tend to simplify speech. Additionally, the enduring concept from Stampe’s theory of natural phonology is the phonological process. In current times, the term and types of phonological processes is simply used to describe error patterns in the speech of children. Contemporary theories of phonology include optimality theory, nonlinear phonology, and representation-based accounts of children’s speech. Each of these offers alternative explanations as well as descriptions of speech acquisition and SSD in children.

3 Let us consider the phrase [на лугу кос нет] and words [вАлы ], [сАма]. Logically, there can only be three answers to the question: which phonemes are represented by the consonant sound [c] in [кос] and by the vowel sound [А] in [вАлы]:

M (1) If [кос] and [вАлы] are grammatical forms of the words коза and вол respectively, then the consonant [c] represents phoneme /з/, while the vowel [А] is an allophone of the phoneme /o/. If [кос] and [вАлы] are grammatical forms of the words коса and вал respectively, then the consonant [c] belongs to the phoneme /с/, while the vowel [А] should be assigned to the phoneme /а/.

СП (2) The consonant [c] in [кос] belongs to the phoneme Id no matter whether it is a form of коза or that of коса, while the vowel [А] in [вАлы] represents the phoneme /a/ no matter whether it is a form of вол or that of вал.

П (3) The consonant [c] represents neither phoneme /з/, nor phoneme Id, while the vowel [А] in [вАлы] does not belong either to the phoneme /a/ or to the phoneme /о/.

Since there are three possible answers to the above questions, there are three schools of thought on the problem of identifying phonemes.

Those linguists who give the first answer belong to the so-called morphological (Moscow phonological) school (R.I. Avanesov, V.N. Sidorov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky, and N.F. Yakovlev). The exponents of this school maintain that two different phonemes in different allomorphs of the same morpheme may be represented on the synchronic level by one and the same sound, which is their common variant and, consequently, one and the same sound may belong to one phoneme in one word and to another phoneme in another word.

In order to decide to which phoneme the sounds in a phonologically weak (neutral) position belong, it is necessary to find another allomorph of the same morpheme in which the phoneme occurs in the strong position, i.e. one in which it retains all its distinctive features. The strong position of a Russian consonant phoneme is that before a vowel sound of the same word, whereas the strong position of a vowel phoneme is that under stress. The consonant [c] in кос belongs to the phoneme Id because in the strong position in such allomorphs of the same morpheme as in коса, косы the phoneme is definitely /с/. In коз the same sound [c] is a variant of the phoneme /з/ because in the strong position, as in коза, козы, the phoneme is definitely /з/. The vowel [А] in валы is an allophone of the phoneme /a/ because the phoneme occurs in the strong position in вал while the same vowel [А] in волы is a variant of the phoneme /o/ because this phoneme is found in the strong position in вол.

According to this school of thought, the neutral vowel sound in original should be assigned to the English phoneme /σ/ because this phoneme occurs in the strong position in such word as origin.

The second school of thought, originated by L.V. Shcherba, advocates the autonomy of the phoneme and its independence from the morpheme. Different allomorphs of a morpheme may differ from each other on the synchronic level not only in their allophonic, but also in their phonemic composition. According to the Leningrad (Petersburg) phonological school (L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich), speech sounds in a phonologically neutral position belong to that phoneme with whose principal variant they completely or nearly coincide. Thus, the sound [c] in [кос] should be assigned to the phoneme /с/ because it fully coincides with the latter's principal variant, which is free from the influence of neighboring speech sounds. The vowel [А] in [вАлы] should be assigned to the phoneme /a/ because it nearly coincides with the latter's principal variant [a]. The vowel [ъ] in [въдАвос] does not even resemble either [o] or [a] or [А] but it is still assigned to the /a/ phoneme because both /o/ and /a/ are reduced to [ъ].

According to the third school of thought, there exist types of phonemes higher than the unit phoneme. Different linguists call them differently. One of the terms for them introduced by Prague Linguistic Circle, namely by N.S. Trubetzkoy and R. Jacobson, is archiphoneme. According to them, the archiphoneme is a combination of distinctive features common to two phonemes. Thus each of the speech sounds [c], [з] represents the phonemes /c/, /з/. These two phonemes differ from each other only in matter of voice, while both of them possess the other two distinctive features: (1) forelingual (2) fricative articulation. These two features together constitute the archiphoneme to which both [c] and [з] belong. This archiphoneme is, therefore, neither voiceless nor voiced. It designated by Russian capital letter C. The sound [c] in [кос] in both На лугу кос нет and На лугу коз нет belongs to this archiphoneme and not to the phoneme /c/ or /з/.

The phoneme /а/ and /о/ belong to archiphoneme which is realized in the sound [A], as in [вАлы] meaning both валы and волы.

4 Differences in pronunciation between American English (AmE) and British English (BrE) can be divided into differences in accent (i.e. phoneme inventory and realisation). See differences between General American and Received Pronunciation for the standard accents in the United States and Britain; for information about other accents see regional accents of English speakers.

In the following discussion:

superscript A2 after a word indicates that the BrE pronunciation of the word is a common variant in AmE.

superscript B2 after a word indicates that the AmE pronunciation of the word is a common variant in BrE.

superscript A1 after a word indicates that the pronunciation given as BrE is also the most common variant in AmE.

superscript B1 after a word indicates that the pronunciation given as AmE is also the most common variant in BrE.

Word

British Pronunciation

American Pronunciation

1. Advertisement

uhd-VER-tis-muhnt

AD-ver-ties-muhnt

2. Bald

bor-ld

bold

3. Clique

cleek

clik

4. Either

eye-thuh

ee-thuhr

5. Envelope

EN-VUH-lohp / ON-vuh-lohp

6. Esplanade

ES-pluh-nayd

ES-pluh-nard

7. Leisure

LEZH-uh

LEE-zhuhr

8. Mobile

MOH-bye-ul

MOH-buhl

9. Missile

MIS-eye-ul

MIS-uhl

10. Neither

NIGH-thuh

NEE-thuh

11. Niche

neesh

nitch

12. Often

OF-uhn / OF-tuhn

13. Parliament

PAR-li-muhnt

PAR-luh-muhnt

14. Privacy

PRIV-uh-see

PRAI-vuh-see

15. Semi

SEM-ee

SEM-eye

16. Schedule

SHED-jool

SKED-jool

17. Scone

skon

skohn

18. Stance

starns

stans

19. Tomato

tuh-MAR-toe

tuh-MAY-toe

20. Vase

varz

vays

21. Vitamin

VIT-uh-min

VAI-tuh-min

22. Wrath

roth

rath

5 Regional Dialect. A subgroup variety of a language associated with a particular geographical area is called a regional dialect. ...

Ethnic dialect. A subgroup variety of a language that is associated with a particular ethnic group is termed an ethnic dialect. ...

Sociolect. ...

Accent.

Dialects of English spoken in Canada and the United States.

Standard Canadian English.

Western American English.

North-Central American ("Upper Midwest") English.

Inland Northern American ("Great Lakes") English.

Midland American English.

Southern American English. ...

Such is the variation that it can even give rise to misunderstandings between English-speakers. For example, an English person might say “I’m going to have a root in the wardrobe”, meaning that they’re going to hunt around in the wardrobe for something; but an Australian would laugh at this because to them, “root” is a rude word. Across the UK, a bread roll might be referred to in different regions as a “bun”, a “bap”, or a “barm cake”, among other things – all essentially the same thing, but referred to differently. It’s little wonder that those learning English have problems – so do native speakers! To demonstrate the enormous variety to be found in the way English is spoken in different parts of the country – and the world – we give you three

illustrative words and phrases each from a selection of well-known English dialects.

Brummie/Black Country

We start with an accent that doesn’t have many fans in the UK. The Birmingham accent – part of the ‘Black Country’ dialect, which refers to the name given to this part of the Midlands, formerly ‘black’ from coal mining – is affectionately known as “the Brummie accent”.

“Round the Wrekin”

This saying is common in and around the Black Country, including the counties of Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire, Staffordshire and others. It refers to a prominent hill in Shropshire called “the Wrekin” – pronounced “REE-kin” – which can be seen for miles around. The phrase “round the Wrekin” simply means “to take the long way around”, which could refer to a long route taken when travelling somewhere, or to a long, rambling conversation that takes ages to get to the point.

“Bostin”

The word “bosting” (usually spelt and pronounced “bostin”) is used to describe something brilliant or excellent. It’s actually slang for “broken”, so it’s roughly akin to the general English term “smashing”, which isn’t fixed to a particular dialect.

“Babby”

This technically means “baby”, but you’ll probably find you’re addressed by Brummie folk as such (or by the shortening “bab” or “babs”). It’s a bit like the general word “dear”, as in “How are you bab?”.

Essex

The Essex accent is regarded as a milder form of the London accent, but this part of the country has also developed its own set of interesting words and phrases that people elsewhere in the country might not understand. It’s a dialect made famous – or infamous – by the television series The Only Way is Essex, with modern Essex sayings (used among the younger generation) including the vulgar “well jell”, which means “very jealous”. There’s more to Essex than this dreadful television show, however, and the phrases below preserve some older sayings from this county.

“Sing-small”

This means “to put up with less than was expected or promised”.

“Narrow-wriggle”

This brilliantly descriptive expression refers to an earwig, a kind of household pest.

“Liggle”

This refers to the act of carrying something that’s too big to be carried easily. Picture a small child trying to carry a growing, wriggling puppy, and you get the idea.

Scouse

The Scouse dialect is spoken in the English city of Liverpool and its surrounding counties. This distinctive dialect, characterised by its rising and falling tones and the use of “youse” instead of “you” as the second person pronoun, has an extensive vocabulary of slang, of which the following are some examples.

“Devoed”

This is an expression of negativity, broadly synonymous with the more widely used “gutted”. “Proper devoed” would mean “well and truly gutted”.

“Fella”

The word “fella” refers to a man, either in the third person (“your auld fella” would mean “your father”, as in the more widely used “old man” to mean father), or directly, as in “you alright fella?”

“Chocka”

This means “very busy” (as in “the station was chocka”) and it comes from the longer expression “chock-a-block”, which is actually of 19th century nautical origin and is heard more widely around the UK.

Geordie

Another highly distinctive UK dialect is known as “Geordie”, and it’s spoken by people in and around the north-eastern-English city of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and the larger Tyneside area.

“Pet”

This is simply an affectionate way of addressing someone, in the same way as the Brummie “babs”: “I know what yer mean, pet.”

“Geet walla”

This simply means “very big”, as in “there’s a geet walla tree in the road.”

“Haddaway”

This is generally used to express disbelief, in the same way as the widely used exclamation, “No way!” For example, a Geordie person might say, “Haddaway man, there’s nee [no] way he’s comin”.

Yorkshire

The Yorkshire accent is the archetypal Northern English one, and it’s characterised particularly by the shortening of “the” to a single “t” sound, as in “middle of t’road”, and by the dropping of consonants at the beginning of some words, such as “‘appy” instead of “happy”.

“Eee by gum”

This essentially means “oh my God”, and it’s the phrase all non-Yorkshire people say when they want to replicate this distinctive dialect.

“Oh aye?”

This means “oh really?” and is generally an expression of surprise, that might be uttered with a raised eyebrow.

“‘Appy as a pig in muck”

This refers to someone very happy or content.

Cockney

This dialect is traditionally spoken by London’s working class. We’ve already covered Cockney rhyming slang in our previous post on English slang, but this article would be incomplete without a mention of this notable English dialect. It’s so famous for its rhyming slang that it’s difficult to find examples of specific words that don’t arise from it; but they do exist, as these three examples show.

“Backhander”

This refers to an underhand payment, such as a bribe.

“Duck and dive”

The term “duck and dive” means hiding from trouble. If asked what they have been doing, a Cockney might respond by saying “duckin’ and divin’”, which is simply a non-committal answer that someone might give if they don’t wish to be specific.

“Luvverly jubberly”

Popularised by the sitcom “Only Fools and Horses”, the expression “luvverly jubberly” means that all is well.

West Country

The homely West Country accent has connotations of farmers and cider (a primarily Somerset stereotype), and when non-West Country folk want to replicate it, they say “ooh arr” (which means “oh yes!”, said when you’re pleased at something). For a good illustration of what the West Country accent sounds like, refer to the popular West Country band, The Wurzels.

“Alright me luvver?”

Translated as “are you ok mate?”, this is a form of greeting, and again is often used when mocking this accent.

“Teddies”

Another word for “potatoes”. In wider English vocabulary, a “teddy” is a toy stuffed bear.

“‘Ark a’ee”

This means “listen to him”, “‘ark” being short for “hark” and “ee” being a common substitute for “him” in the West Country dialect.

Welsh

Wales was a separate country before being incorporated into the United Kingdom, and as such, many of its inhabitants still speak the Welsh language. When speaking English, the Welsh have a pleasantly lyrical accent often described as “sing-song”, and there are a few words that are often referred to as “Wenglish” – a hybrid between Welsh and English. There are different dialects within Wales, such as the Cardiff dialect and the Valleys, but here are some of the more well-known words in general use in Wales.

“Butty”

In Wales, this word is often taken to mean a “mate”, and its usage differs from the wider English understanding of the word to mean “sandwich”, as in a “bacon butty”.

“Wanged out”

The expression “wanged out” (or just “wanged”) means “exhausted”. As in, “I’m going to bed, I’m wanged out.”

“Tidy”

In English as a whole, the word “tidy” means neat and ordered, but in Wales, it takes on a whole new meaning. As an exclamation, “Tidy!” means “splendid!”, while “a tidy few” would mean “quite a large number”, “a tidy spell” would be “quite a long time”, and “a tidy bit in the bank” would mean “quite a lot of money saved up in the bank”. There are lots more expressions along similar lines, too.