Microsoft Word Chapter13-DiscourseCompetenceelcompletoa111004b doc

Democracy and Education
(1916), titled 
‘Thinking in Education’, shows the main lines of his method, which is based on the 
following principles: 
1. 
‘The initial stage of that developing experience which is called 
thinking is experience” (
ibid
.:153), that is, the start of reflective thinking is 
action because, as Dewey states (
ibid
.: 154), “[successful methods] give the 
pupils something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a 
nature as to demand thinking, or the intentional noting of connections; 
learning naturally results’. 
2. 
‘There must be data at command to supply the considerations required 
in dealing with the specific difficulty which has presented itself’ (
ibid
.:156), 
that is, reflective thinking requires information. 
3. 
‘The correlate in thinking of facts, data, knowledge already acquired, 
is suggestions, inferences, conjectured meanings, suppositions, tentative 
explanations: ideas, in short’ (
ibid
.:158), that is, reflective thinking builds and 
produces tentative explanations, not truths. It is during the reflective-
communicative act, a creative constructive process, when ideas are generated 
and debated. 
4. 
‘Ideas (...) whether they be humble guesses or dignified theories, are 
anticipations of possible solutions. (…) They are therefore tested by the 
operation of acting upon them. (…) They are intermediate in learning, not 
final’ (
ibid
.:158), that is, reflective thinking is not isolated but linked to reality 
to solve problems, provide solutions, build realities. 
From these four general principles, critical thinking took several directions. Three of 
them are described now. First, Edward Glaser (quoted in Fisher 2001:3-4) stresses the 
logical aspects of reasoning in order to create tests to measure the critical-reflective 
capacity, such as the well-known Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. 
Secondly, Richard Paul (quoted in Fisher 2001:4-5) understands critical thinking as a 
meta-cognitive activity, thinking about thinking. Thirdly, Robert Ennis highlights the 
orientation towards action of critical thinking in its most famous definition: ‘Critical 
thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe 
or do’. (Ennis, 1987:10, 1991:5). 
Critical thinking implies different skills (Fisher 2001:8): 
•
identifying the elements in a reasoned case, especially reasons and 
conclusions; 
•
identifying and evaluating assumptions; 
•
clarifying and interpreting expressions and ideas; 
•
judging the acceptability, especially the credibility, of claims; 
•
evaluating arguments of different kinds; 
•
analysing, evaluating and producing explanations; 
•
analysing, evaluating and making decisions; 
•
drawing inferences; 
•
producing arguments. 

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Many of these skills are (or should be) skills developed during the period of 
Secondary education and should, then, be present in the school curriculum. In that 
sense, it would be wise to talk about a disposition towards critical thinking, which 
means being open-minded, analytical, systematic, inquisitive, judicious, truthseeking 
and confident in reasoning (Facione 1998:8). 
Critical thinking applied in school and in language learning may take two directions. 
On the one hand, it means to bring into the classroom, for their study and discussion, 
situations and texts where domination and power strategies can be observed; on the 
other hand, it means to think of solutions and alternative situations to those of 
unbalanced power and domination. Thus, critical thinking may be: 
‘…a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one's personal 
and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, Critical Thinking is 
a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker 
is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, 
flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in 
making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in 
complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the 
selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which 
are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit. Thus, 
educating good critical thinkers means working toward this ideal’ (Facione, 
1990:2). 
In language teaching, critical thinking and those skills associated to it can be 
developed in relation to the communicative action of argumentation. Our proposal 
(Trujillo Sáez 2002b) could be summarised as follows: argumentation and 
argumentative discourse allow language teaching aspire to two objectives, the 
development of communicative and discourse competence and of intercultural 
competence. Two basic elements of communication and interculturality are present in 
argumentative discourse, namely the cognitive effort of creating arguments which 
pretend to modify the cognitive environment of our interlocutor and the attitude on the