|
Paradigmatic relations are the relation between set of linguistic items, which in some sense, constitute choices, so that only one of them may be present at a time in a given position. On the paradigmatic level, the word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system.
So, a word may be studied in comparison with other words of similar meaning (e. g. work, n. -- labour, n.; to refuse, v. -- to reject v. -- to decline, v.), of opposite meaning (e. g. busy, adj. -- idle, adj.; to accept, v, -- to reject, v.), of different stylistic characteristics (e. g. man, n. -- chap, n. -- bloke, n. -- guy, n.).
Consequently, the main problems of paradigmatic studies of vocabulary are:
-- synonymy
-- hyponymy
-- antonymy
-- functional styles
On the syntagmatic level, the semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts, in speech:
-- phrases
-- collocations
Some collocations are totally predictable, such as spick with span, others are much less so: letter collocates with a wide range of lexemes, such as alphabet and spelling, and (in another sense) box, post, and write.
Collocations differ greatly between languages, and provide a major difficulty in mastering foreign languages. In English, we 'face' problems and 'interpret' dreams; but in modern Hebrew, we have to 'stand in front of problems and 'solve' dreams.
The more fixed a collocation is, the more we think of it as an 'idiom' - a pattern to be learned as a whole, and not as the 'sum of its parts'.
Combination of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in lexical system determines vocabulary as a system.
1.2 The main peculiarities of English word-stock
There are a lot of variants of the English language:
English as a native language
-- Australia
-- Canada
-- the Commonwealth Caribbean
-- Ireland
-- New Zealand
-- the United Kingdom
-- United States of America (also commonly known as the Anglosphere)
English as a second language
-- India
-- Sri Lanka
-- Pakistan and South Africa
Basic Engish is a simplified version of English for easy international use.
Basic English (total of 850 words):
Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses the vocabulary of only 1500 words.
1.3 The origin of English words
A very large number of words have been incorporated into the vocabulary of English from other languages. Such words are often called loan-wordsand the process by which they are brought into the language, is calledborrowing.
Borrowings may be classified:
-- according to the time of borrowing
-- according to the language from which the word was borrowed
-- according to the degree of assimilation
-- according to the aspect which is borrowed.
In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen.
A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article.
English easily accepts technical terms into common use. The vocabulary is vast. English has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference (= no visible limits).
OE words are of Anglo-Saxon origin.
Words incorporated into English from other languages - loan-words. The process is called borrowing.
I. Loan words from the point of view of the language they were taken from: cultural expansion, invasions, trade interaction.
1. Anglo-Saxon words: are of Germanic origin, characteristic - it's used in everyday conversation; the most frequent words of English vocabulary; speaking Anglo-Saxon = speaking simply; they have French synonyms # sweat - perspire; begin - commence; book - volume; climb - ascend; most words have one or two syllables.
2. The first wave of borrowings:
a) 1 BC - Roman Empire occupied Europe and Germanic tribes left. Roman brought another everyday lexis: cherry, pear, plum, pepper, kitchen, pot, wine, milk.
b) 5 AD - Celtic words came into Anglo-Saxon (names of rivers, geographic names, etc.) # Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk.
c) 7 AD - Christianization of England, Latin was the official language of church. - religious words + education.
d) 8 - 11 AD - several Scandinavian invasions, Vikings came to England. Characteristic feature: sk. # skim, skip, sky, skill, skirt. In OE - sc turned into sh. Some geographical names: +by - Willaby; another ending of geographic names - thwaite.
e) 1066 - Norman invasion. They were speaking Northern French dialect of Normandy. Extremely significant; law, government, church, court, commerce; elevated style.
# child - infant; happiness - felicity; begin - commence; hearty - cordial.
Gastronomic terms: # to stew, boil, roast, fry
To form a noun - suffixes: -ance, - ence, - ment, -age, -ess.
Adjectives+ suffixes: -ous, -able.
Verbs - prefix: -en #enact, enslave.
f) Renaissance period - # salvation, baptism.
15-16th centuries influence of Latin, Greek - vocabulary of education. # athlete, encyclopedia, climax.
Most common affix: -urn, -us, -a, -ex, -ix # campus, chorus, diploma, matrix, index.
Greek - -is, -on: analysis, crisis, phenomenon, neutron.
NB: Russian origin: I Wave: words connected with trade # rouble, vodka, sterlad; nature: taiga, tundra.
II. Wave: influence of Russian literature of 19th century # duma, zemstvo, narodnik
III. Wave: after the Great October revolution: # komsomol, Bolshevik, sputnik;
IV. Wave: Perestroyka: # glasnost, nomenklatura.
German borrowings: (800 words) - after Renaissance - geological terms, names of raw materials, # cobalt; everyday life # iceberg, kindergarten; Luftwaffe, schmuk.
Holland borrowings: (more than 2000 words) - nautical terms: # deck, riff, dock.
Italian borrowings: commercial terms: # bank; musical terms.
Spanish borrowings: (via America) food items: # melon, tomato.
-- Neologisms and archaisms
"Yesterday's neologisms, like yesterday's jargon, are often today's essential vocabulary."
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: | 
