The period of Renaissance in England

Uzbek literature
Uzbek literature’s classical period lasted from the 9th to the second half of the 19th century. During that period numerous literary works were produced, often under the patronage of Turkic emperors, kings, sultans, and emirs. The best-known patrons of the Turkic literature of the historical region known as Turkistan—which includes what is today Uzbekistan as well as a number of surrounding countries—include the Qarakhanids (10th–13th centuries); such Timurids (14th–16th centuries) as Timur (Tamerlane), Shakhrukh, Ulugh Beg, Ḥusayn Bayqarah, and Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India; and ʿUmar Khan, a 19th-century ruler of the khanate of Kokand.
From the 10th to the 12th century, Uzbek written literature migrated from a Turkic script to an Arabic one. This transition opened Uzbek writers to the influence of Arabic literature; the result was that Uzbek literature underwent extensive changes as it adopted many of the forms and some of the language of Arabic poetry and prose. Works from this period include Yusuf Khass Hajib’s Kutudgu bilig (“Knowledge Which Leads to Happiness”; Eng. trans. The Wisdom of Royal Glory), written in 1069–70; Mahmud Kashgari’s Diwan lughat al-Turk (Compendium of the Turkic Dialects), compiled in 1072–74; and Ahmad Yugnaki’s 12th-century Hibat al-haqaʾiq (“Gift to Truths”), a didactic poem.

Among the other Central Asian poets who had a lasting influence on Uzbek literature is Ahmed Yesevi, a 12th-century religious poet who was a follower of the great Sufi leader Yūsuf Hamadhānī. Ahmed Yesevi’s poems—collected as Divan-i hikmet (“Book of Wisdom”)—constituted a new genre of Central Asian Turkic literature: a religious folk poetry. He used a popular vernacular that borrowed little Arabic and Persian and that featured a Turkic syllabic metre.

The 13th and 14th centuries saw the emergence of works written in Chagatai, a tradition that had a strong influence on the literature later classified as Uzbek. Among the poets of this period, those whose works have been preserved to modern times and remain popular today are Khwārizmī, best known for his Muhabbatnamah (“Love Letters”); Quṭb Khorazmī, who in 1340 translated Neẓāmī’s romantic epic Khosrow o-Shīrīn (“Khosrow and Shīrīn”); and Durbek, best known for his Yusuf o-Zulaykha (“Yusuf and Zulaykha”). In the second half of the 14th century and in the first half of the 15th, the regions of Transoxania and Khorāsān—especially the cities Samarkand and Herat—became centres of a cultural renaissance in Central Asia. Under the Timurids, literature, written in Chagatai, underwent intensive development. Many poetic genres flourished, including the, the elegy, and the romantic destān (an oral epic poem). Many works in prose, especially historical works, were also produced. Of the many outstanding poets of this period, Luṭfī was the great master of the ghazal (lyric love poem) and tuyugh (a Turkic quatrain, similar to the robāʾī), and he exerted a wide influence on poets of his time. In his sole narrative poem, Gul wa Nawruz (written lyric in 1411; “Gul and Nawruz”), he extolled ideal love. Sakkākī, also among the period’s prominent poets, is best known for his divan (collection of poems), which contains munajaat (hymns), ghazals, and qasidas (odes) devoted to Ulūgh Beg. But it was Gadāʾī who was the most remarkable Uzbek poet of the 14th and 15th centuries. Although his divan has been preserved, very little of his life is known. Even the poet’s original name is unknown; Gadāʾī is derived from his use of Gadā (“Beggar”) as a tahallus (pen name) in his ghazals. His divan consists of 229 ghazals, 5 tuyughs, 2 qasidas, and 1 mustazād (a poem in which every second hemistich, or half-line, is followed by a short metrical line that has some bearing on the sense of the first hemistich without altering its meaning).

Chagatai—which would eventually evolve into modern Uzbek—assumed its classical shape in the works of ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī, an outstanding thinker and great poet as well as a famous literary patron of his time. He was also a statesman and a prominent member of the court of the sultan Ḥusayn Bayqarah. Navāʾī’s influence on the Turkic writers of Central Asia—and especially on Uzbek writers—cannot be overestimated. Among his four divans, which contain tens of thousands of lines of lyrical verse written in Chagatai, are examples of almost every literary genre practiced during the 14th and 15th centuries. He also wrote ghazals in Persian under the name Fāni. Navāʾī’s important works include Lisān ul-tayr (“The Language of the Birds”), a mystical masnawi (poem in couplets) completed in 1498; Majālis-i nefaʾīs (1491; “The Exquisite Assemblies”), a prose work in which Navāʾī gave brief descriptions of the major poets of the 14th and 15th centuries; and Mizan al-awzan (1498; “The Balance of Metres”), a treatise on the Turkic prosodic system. He was also the author of a number of historical and scientific treatises, the most important of which is Muhakamat al-lughatayn (1499; “Judgment on Two Languages”), which compares the relative merits of the Persian and Chagatai languages.

Bābur, a prince of the Timurid dynasty who was crowned as king of the principality of Fergana (now in Uzbekistan) at age 12 and was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, was also an outstanding Chagatai poet and writer. One of the most attractive works not only in Chagatai literature but in Central Asian literature and historiography as a whole is his memoir, the Bābur-nāmeh, written during the 16th century in clear and refined Chagatai prose.

From the 17th through the 19th century Uzbek literature developed separately in the three independent Uzbek khanates, two of which had been founded in the 15th century (Bukhara and Khiva [Khwārezm]) and the third in the mid-18th century (Kokand). In Bukhara the most famous poets were Mujrim Obid, one of the best lyric poets of the late 18th and early 19th century; Turdī, a follower of Navāʾī who wrote Sufi poems, although the character and motif of his poems later changed when he began writing poems that were socially engaged; and Sayido Nasafi. Abū al-Ghāzī Bahādur, a 17th-century khan of Khiva, wrote on the history of the Uzbeks, Turkmen, Kazakhs, and Karakalpaks. He played an important role in preserving many of these peoples’ folk legends, tales, proverbs, and sayings. His most notable works are Shajare-i Tarākime (1659; “Genealogical Tree of the Turkmen”) and Shajare-i Turk (completed posthumously by his son in 1665; “Genealogical Tree of the Turks”). Nishātī, an important poet of the 18th century, composed the last major masnawi in Chagatai. Prominent 19th-century Khivan writers include Shermuhammad Munis and Muhammad Āgahī, both poets as well as historians. Munis began writing a history of Khiva, Firdaus-ul iqbāl (“The Paradise of Felicity”), but he could finish only the introduction and first chapters; it was eventually completed by Āgahī, his nephew. The Kokand khanate produced such outstanding poets as Mashrab during the 17th century, Mahmur during the 18th century, and Muhammad Sharaf Gulkhānī, Uwaysī, and Nodira during the 19th century.