Topic: History of Chemistry. Plan

Topic: History of Chemistry.


Plan:

1. Subjects of chemistry.

2. Its place among the natural sciences and the humanities
3. Level of chemical knowledge
4. About the stages of solving the main problem of chemistry
5. The integral connection of chemistry with other natural sciences
6. The main directions of modern chemistry i
From time immemorial, people have been in constant contact with the surrounding nature, creating the necessary materials and products for it under the influence of chemicals. For example: metal melting, glass and ceramics, dyeing for fabrics, tanning, baking, etc. From this point of view, we are convinced that chemistry is the oldest branch of human activity. It was still a field of activity, not a science. It took thousands of years for chemistry to become the science we imagine today. The scope of chemical knowledge is very wide. Chemistry is one of the natural sciences that studies the whole universe around us, its diversity, and the various phenomena that take place in the universe. Nature, the whole universe exists outside the human mind and is independent of the human mind. The universe is made up of matter, and all that exists is a different kind of matter that is constantly in motion. Deep knowledge of matter and its use for the benefit of man is the main problem of chemistry today.
Chemistry examines the substances that make up animate and inanimate nature, their properties, structure, their interactions, the changes that occur as a result, and the connections between these changes. The whole universe, animate and inanimate, all the processes that take place in the universe are constantly changing and evolving.
It is said that history is the teacher of life. On the basis of this idea, Ostwald advanced the idea that the general laws of human development could indeed be created by studying the history of the sciences and generalizing them. So, in the history of science, one can see the path of human development. In the study of history, of course, the question arises as to how and when society began and ended.
In 1970, the Japanese company Omron SINIG (sret - grain, Innovation - innovation, need - need, impetus - running, cycle - cycle. - towards the need ») in which the development of society, in turn, showed that each science requires a systematic study of the basis of research, its history, individual technology. This theory is not only one of the sciences that explain the mysteries of nature, but also directly related to the science of chemistry, which is the main productive force in life.
H indeed, chemistry occupies one of the leading positions among the sciences in society. Chemistry is not only a means of sustaining our lives, but also a key tool in solving everyday problems . In this regard, academician VAKoptyug said at the 35th General Assembly of the International Committee of Theoretical and Applied Chemistry (Internet Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) that "the great impact of chemistry on other sciences and progress in society should be explained to the general public." Chemistry studies both the elements that make up the world and the various simple and complex substances that make up these elements, as well as the complex laws of their interaction.
Chemistry explains the essence of the events and experiments observed in everyday life.
The development of chemistry is inextricably linked with other natural sciences:
1. If we look at the relationship of chemistry to mathematics: first the determination of atomic mass, the mathematical expression of the rate of chemical reactions by 1850, then: differential, integral, mathematical statistics, computational mathematics, computer, modeling, graphical representation of chemical reactions and we see its application to the science of chemistry.
2. For physicists, chemistry is considered as an object: the structure of substances, their ability to undergo a chemical reaction (physical chemistry) is studied using physical methods (NMR, PMR, spectroscopy, etc.).
3. If we look at the relationship of biological science with chemistry: bioorganic chemistry, biochemistry, bionoorganic chemistry (we see the study of the structure, composition and migration of metals in the body. (Mn, Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mo). , etc.). Their coordination compounds are: [Co (NH ₃ ) ₆ ] ^{2+ (3+)} form the basis of amino acids that are fragments of proteins. The above metals are part of enzymes that "is called.
As a result of the generalization of the biological and chemical sciences, the science of biochemistry emerged. Geochemistry studies the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust and their minerals in nature.
Many applied sciences - coal, water, petroleum, glass chemistry - have emerged. With the help of chemistry, a number of issues related to the food industry, metallurgy, medicine, agriculture are being addressed.
directions of modern chemistry can be noted:
- Synthesis of new chemical compounds and development of their methods;
- study of chemical reactions under the influence of various chemical factors;
- Development of new methods of chemical analysis - the study of the composition and properties of substances;
- study of chemical elements and their isotopes;
- creation of various new materials, study of their structure and properties;
- creation of new types of fuel and energy sources;
- Development of experimental methods of purification of substances and separation of mixtures and development of its theoretical principles;
- Application of chemistry to electronics;
- Synthesis of new drugs, food products;
- Development of technology for the use of natural resources;
-chemical analysis and chemical diagnostics;
- Chemistry of living organisms.
In 1977 there were 4 million 40 thousand chemical compounds, of which 63 thousand were used in practice, by 1983 there were 5 million 475 thousand types of substances, which in 2000 exceeded 8 million, and now there are 20 million. more than that.
There are now 7,000 chemistry journals published in the world , with an average of 100,000 published each year . The chemical industry accounts for the highest percentage of production . At present, a new approach to chemistry "Green Chemistry" is based on all directions. The future development of chemistry is expected to be mainly in the following areas :
chemicalization (fertilizers, metallurgy , petrochemistry , petrochemistry ) ;
- creation of waste-free technology;
- maintaining a clean environment;
- waste recycling;
- photosynthesis, laser chemistry, plasma chemistry , nanomaterials, femtochemistry ;
- Synthesis in extreme conditions;
The main task of chemistry is to obtain the most necessary materials for mankind from natural substances - metals, ceramics, binders, porcelain, glass, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, rubber, plastics, man-made fibers, fuel food -food, composite materials and many other materials. To do this, chemistry must solve its main problem : that is, what chemical elements make up the same substance and what changes need to be made to obtain the required materials. It follows that the main task of chemistry is to know or determine the properties of a substance in advance and to control the properties of the substance .
With this in mind, we will also try to determine the current place of chemistry by summarizing the knowledge known so far in the course of the history of chemistry.
So what place does the history of chemistry play in the knowledge complex? Is this subject humanities or natural sciences? We are looking for answers to the following questions:
The subject of the history of chemistry is the study of the development of chemistry in different periods, its place among other natural sciences and the stages of development. In the history of chemistry, the "Middle Ages" and the "Renaissance" have a very important place. The great scientists of this period, I. Newton, despite being a physicist - dealing with biological problems - studied the chemical bonds in them. Thomas Sprot / 1667 / In his History of the Royal Society of London, he writes, "Chemists are naturalists who often discover new things in medicine, such as metal mutations or elixirs." .
Despite being a chemist, Lavoisier studied combustion from the perspective of a physical process. Laplace, on the other hand, studied the problems of metabolic energies in biology . This means that the scientists of this period did not divide the sciences into "corridors". They bariwere engaged in general scientific work in the natural sciences.
The main reason for this is, in fact, that the basic laws of nature complement each other. The sciences of physics, chemistry and biology are very close and closely intertwined. German physicist. V. Heisenberg proposes "a closed system of complementary concepts of physics and chemistry - quantum theory."
Buslova MK says that these sciences are based on a general natural complex, as evidenced by the emergence of "physical chemistry, biochemistry, geochemistry, cosmochemistry."
Not only the natural sciences but also chemistry has been divided into organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, and analytical chemistry, but they are based on chemical description - that is, the composition, structure, and chemical bond of a substance.
The history of chemistry can be studied as both a natural and a human science. Because chemistry has not only been about improving people’s lifestyles, it has also served to make them more cultured. There are many examples of this. Even the encounter of atomic concepts in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1615) is a vivid example of this.
With this in mind, we have the right to study the subject of the history of chemistry as both a natural and a human science. The reason for this is that history has shown that putting a "Chinese wall" between knowledge leads to great mistakes.
The development of society, in turn, requires the study of the basis of each science, its history, technology, in a systematic way. This is not only one of the sciences that explains the mysteries of nature, but also chemistry, which is the main productive force in life. But the collection of dry facts is not history, only theoretical study creates the history of science. Therefore, a historical methodological analysis of the development is needed.
VMKedrov came up with the idea that there are two levels of chemical knowledge: the doctrine of composition and the doctrine of structure.
Later, Nobel Laureate Semenov NN introduced a new level of chemical knowledge, the doctrine of chemical processes. Using them, the essence of the concept of creating a history of chemistry (basic views) was realized taking into account the following;
- Stages of knowledge development,
- transition from simple to complex,
- Development of science in connection with production,
- Systematization of step-by-step learning in chemical theories (atom, molecule, reaction system).
Now we need to learn how chemistry solves problems to know history. What characterizes chemical knowledge. It should be noted that in all periods of development of chemistry, the main characteristics of chemicals have been their composition, chemical bonding and structure. Kuznesov says VP chemistry is the task of getting from one substance to another - metals, ceramics, plastics, artificial silks, cement, mineral fertilizers and so on . This is a production task, but the processes by which they pass from one to another, from one property to another, are theoretical problems. These are the key to getting the ingredients you need. Hence, the study of chemistry focuses on the study of spiral determinism - the organic relationship of properties.
Two-time Nobel laureate Linus Pauling describes chemistry as the science of substances — the study of their structure, properties, and reactions that result in the transformation of substances from one to another.
The history of chemistry uses the following methods conditionally to summarize the scientific work done to explain these issues and to understand the main issue.
1. The worldviews of ancient natural philosophers that lasted until the middle of the seventeenth century.
2. The capitalist system of production, which began in the second half of the seventeenth century, led to the view that the properties of matter as a function of its chemical composition, taking into account experiments in science.

CONTENT PROPERTY

This served as the first concept of chemistry to generalize chemical knowledge as a science.

1. 
   By the beginning of the XVIII century, factories and plants appeared in production.
   

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This, in turn, serves as the beginning of the doctrine of the structures of chemicals and the second concept of generalization of chemical knowledge.

4. By the middle of the XIX century, based on the requirements of the rapid development of production, new problems arose before the science of chemistry, namely, the production of synthetic rubber, plastics, oils, ceramic products, etc. gave rise to the doctrine of chemical processes and is the third concept.

5. The evolution of the main problem of chemistry is the fourth concept, which leads to a quantitative (continuous) change in quality.

The division into the above concepts in the study of the main problem of chemistry stems from the constant development from the simple to the complex, from the bottom up.
The development of chemistry can be divided into the following 5 stages. Each stage differs in its methods of solving chemical problems:
Stage 1 - The development of chemistry is a period from ancient natural philosophy to our history, which we call the “alchemy” period. This period was mainly concerned with gathering evidence about substances and studying their interrelationships. It covers the period from 2,000 years to the second half of the 17th century. Their main goal was to find the philosopher's stone.
Stage 2. It begins in the second half of the seventeenth century. This period was called experimental chemistry, and they established that chemistry was the science of the composition of substances. He synthesized, studied the composition of substances, studied their interactions, created rules, laws, theories, analytical chemistry - emerged as a qualitative science.
Stage 3. Beginning in the second half of the XVIII century, analytical chemistry - and then the transition to synthetics - "structural chemistry" (structural chemistry) emerged, resulting in - dyes, drugs, artificial silk. This period was the basis for the beginning of the chemical structure (1860-1880) and led to the rapid development of organic chemistry.
Stage 4. The twentieth century covers a period of rapid development of industry and technology. This period is characterized by the acquisition of large quantities of specific ingredients needed for industry and agriculture. Large quantities of plastics, synthetics, rubber, synthetic fibers, detergents, nitrogen fertilizers and others with known properties began to be produced.
Stage 5. The period of development according to the demand of modern production. During this period, the choice of different solvents aimed to create a theory of chemical processes used to obtain substances of the desired composition using biocatalysts.
Evolution in chemistry is based on the teachings of kinetics, structural chemistry, biochemistry, bioorganic chemistry, and composition, and how it responds to the formation of living organisms on Earth. Thus, the history of chemistry - a set of knowledge generalized on the basis of laws, theories, studied the development trends of chemistry as a science and a productive force. So, the history of chemistry is the study of the relationship between chemistry and civilization, chemistry and industry. Professor SG Kara-Murza, taking into account the current experimental facts, suggested that "the history of chemistry studies the history of the improvement of the methodological arsenal of chemistry" (Kara-Murza S. G Technology nauchnix issledovaniy M. Nauka, 1989)
1.1.2. History of the development of chemistry. Humans have long consumed plant products rich in sugar, fat and protein. They knew how to make jewelry out of gold and silver 6,000 years ago. In 2000 BC, arsenic was used in China to control agricultural pests . In Egypt at that time, plant and animal organisms were made of various dyes, medicines from zinc and sulfur. All peoples have known the process of kneading since ancient times. Each nation had its own alcohol. It was made from frost, honey or grape juice. Vinegar was used not only in cooking, but also in dyeing. But in those days, chemistry was only practiced by special people. Theoretical problems of chemistry were studied by ancient Greek scientists in the V-VI centuries BC. They explained that the basis of all existence is four - water, air, earth and fire. Aristotle (384-322 BC) later developed the theory that all beings are made up of a single basic matter. According to him, four properties: cold, heat, moisture, and dryness are formed from the combination of different proportions of the basic matter - water, air, soil, and fire. For example, when heat and moisture are added to the base matter, air is formed, and when moisture and air are added, water is formed, and so on. They can also turn into each other. For example, when the air cools, the heat escapes and turns into water, when the water is heated, the moisture escapes and turns into dust, and so on. Such an Aristocratic view of the material world prevailed in Europe until the sixteenth century.
The Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627-1691) made a great contribution to the development of chemistry as a science. His theory of alchemy was sharply criticized in his book